THE LAST JUDGMENT AS REVEALED IN THE SCRIPTURES The Throne of God

Crucial to understanding the biblical passages of the last judgment is the concept of the throne of God. The imagery of God seated on a throne arises naturally from God’s primary Old Testament role as King of the universe. It is surely noteworthy that King David’s psalms are the earliest source of throne imagery. There the language occurs in the context of judgment (Ps. 9:4-7; 11:4-7). Later psalms picture God seated on His throne to communicate His rulership over everyone and everything (Ps. 45:6-7; 47:7-9; 93:1-2; 97:1-2; 103:19).

When the Lord appeared to the prophets in visions, often He would be sitting on a throne (1 Kgs. 22:19ff; 2 Chr. 18:18ff; Isa. 6:1ff.; Ezek. 1:26ff.; 10:1ff.; 43:7; Dan. 7:9ff.; Zech. 3:1ff.; 6:5). The Lord declares in Isaiah 66:1 that heaven is His throne from which He judges the nations, and that verse is quoted in the New Testament (Matt. 5:34; 23:22; Acts 7:9). Jerusalem also receives mention as God’s throne, in the sense that it is His dwelling (Jer. 3:17; 14:21; possibly Lam. 5:19).

The New Testament most often uses throne imagery for the exaltation of Christ after His resurrection and ascension (Matt. 26:64; Mark 14:62; Luke 22:69; Acts 2:30; 7:55-56; Rom. 8:34; Col. 3:1; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2; 1 Pet. 3:22). The various eschatological judgment passages (cited below) refer to one or more thrones. Hebrews 4:16 is unique in referring to God’s throne as the “throne of grace,” since it is usually associated with wrath and judgment. Finally, the throne is central to John’s vision of heaven in Revelation (1:4; 3:21; 4:1-5:13; 6:16; 7:9-17; 8:3; 12:5; 14:3, 5; 16:17; 19:4-5; 20:11; 21:5; 22:1, 3).

Overall, the throne impresses upon us the place of God as King of kings and Lord of lords, assuming rightful authority and executing righteous judgment over all things. It often, though certainly not always, has eschatological significance.
Ancient Revelation

Aside from a few very general prophecies of Messianic import (e.g., Gen. 3:15; Deut. 18:15), the early Old Testament is virtually silent about the end times altogether. Statements such as Elihu’s in Job 34:11a (“For He pays a man according to his work.”) are affirmations of God’s just character in the present and not predictions of a future judgment. Abraham’s reference to God as “the Judge of all the earth” (Gen. 18:25) also expresses God’s present rulership. One curious expression appears in Exodus 32:30-35, when Moses intercedes for the Israelites. Moses offers to have his name blotted out from “Your book which You have written” in exchange for Israel’s punishment. The Lord refuses, saying the one blotted out will be “whoever has sinned against Me.” The passage does not explain the significance of this book, but it is evidently connected with the Lord’s favor.
David and Solomon

David was the first biblical author to write detailed eschatological or apocalyptic passages. Like Moses, David makes a reference to the Lord’s book, this time referring to it as “the book of life.” He asks that his enemies be blotted out and “not be recorded with the righteous” (Ps. 69:28). This wish comes in the midst of a number of curses David pronounces on his oppressors. Taken in context with the immediately preceding statement, “May they not come into Your righteousness” (v. 27), it is one of the Old Testament’s few hints of an afterlife with or without God.

The more joyful Psalm 9 praises God for delivering David from his enemies. The Lord destroys those who oppose Him, but He “abides forever; / He has established His throne for judgment, / And He will judge the world in righteousness; / He will execute judgment for the peoples in equity” (9:7-8). Later verses speak of God upholding the needy and those who seek Him. Whether “judge” and “execute” belong in the future tense or a continuous present is debatable, however, and so David could simply be commenting on the justice God currently demonstrates.

A more certain reference to end-time judgment comes in a psalm David composed late in His reign, when He brought the ark to Jerusalem: “Then the trees of the forest will sing for joy before the LORD; / for He is coming to judge the earth” (1 Chr. 16:33; parallels in Ps. 96:12-13; 98:8-9). The context relates this judgment to a deliverance of Israel from the hostile nations.

The last judgment was very important for Solomon. It receives mention once in Proverbs:

If you say, “See, we did not know this,”

Does He not consider it who weighs the hearts?

And does He not know it who keeps your soul?

And will He not render to man according to his work? (Prov. 24:12)

In Ecclesiastes, this very concept becomes the answer to the question that plagues the author throughout the book. This life is full of injustices, and it often seems futile to pursue righteousness when the wicked share the same fate. But in the end, God will preserve justice by repaying everyone according to what they have done (Ecc. 3:16-17; 11:9; 12:13-14).
Later Old Testament Revelation

Frequently, the writing prophets describe a future time when the Lord will come down to deliver Israel from being besieged by an alliance of nations, and to establish His kingdom on earth. Literally hundreds of verses are devoted to describing this scenario. But a courtroom-style judgment appears only in Daniel. Daniel’s first such vision involves the judgment of the “little horn”:

I kept looking until thrones were set up,

And the Ancient of Days took His seat;

His vesture was like white snow

And the hair of His head like pure wool.

His throne was ablaze with flames,

Its wheels were a burning fire.

A river of fire was flowing

And coming out from before Him;

Thousands upon thousands were attending Him,

And myriads upon myriads were standing before Him;

The court sat, and the books were opened. (Dan. 7:9-12)

As the angel explains, the vision depicts not the judgment of all people, but only of the beast, the future ruler who will oppose God and persecute the saints. As a result of the judgment, the beast will be thrown into the fire. Verses 13-14 describe the Son of Man coming with the clouds and being given rule over the whole earth. The imagery of this passage appears later in Revelation, and it is to this passage that Jesus continually alludes when He refers to Himself as the Son of Man.

Daniel also prophesies regarding the judgment of the righteous and the wicked. Following a time of unprecedented distress on earth, “your people, everyone who is found written in the book, will be rescued” (Dan. 12:1). Then the resurrection will occur. Some will awake “to everlasting life,” and the rest “to disgrace and everlasting contempt” (v. 2). Daniel closes with his instructions from the angel, “But as for you, go your way to the end; then you will enter into rest and rise again for your allotted portion at the end of the age” (v. 13).
Jesus’ Ministry

In John 5:25-29, Jesus seems to build on Daniel’s discussion of the resurrection. He says, “Truly, truly, I say to you, an hour is coming and now is, when the dead will hear the voice of the Son of God, and those who hear will live. For just as the Father has life in Himself, even so He gave to the Son also to have life in Himself; and He gave Him authority to execute judgment, because He is the Son of Man. Do not marvel at this; for an hour is coming, in which all who are in the tombs will hear His voice, and will come forth; those who did the good deeds to a resurrection of life, those who committed the evil deeds to a resurrection of judgment.” Jesus makes these statements in a discourse concerning His identity and His relationship to the Father. In fact, this is one of the few times Jesus refers to Himself as the Son of God. Here for the first time in Scripture, the afterlife as pleasant or unpleasant is explicitly said to depend on the deeds one has done in this life. Also, Jesus indicates that there will be two resurrections, and that the final judgment will take place after these resurrections. Finally, the judgment will be meted out by Christ Himself. Jesus indicates further in John 12:47 that His revelation of the Father’s truth will be the standard by which all will be judged on the last day.

There is also a curious passage in Luke 12. When Jesus urges His listeners to be ready for the coming of the Son of Man, Peter asks whether the Lord is addressing only His disciples, or all people. Jesus responds with a parable about faithful and unfaithful servants. The slave who is not ready will be cut into pieces and assigned “a place with the unbelievers” (12:46). Jesus then says, “And that slave who knew his master’s will and did not get ready or act in accord with his will, will receive many lashes, but the one who did not know it, and committed deeds worthy of a flogging, will receive but few” (12:47-48). Luke follows this with a statement from Jesus about coming to cast fire on the earth and divide family members against one another.

From other passages in the Bible, it is clear that a believer will not lose salvation for any reason, even if unprepared at Christ’s return, and from Jesus’ following statements, it seems the unfaithful servants are those who may feign service to the Lord of all but are not actually Christians. Thus it is fitting that such servants receive a place with the unbelievers. What is fascinating about this passage is its very explicit statement about degrees of punishment at the last judgment, rather than simple assignment to heaven or hell.

Jesus’ other references to the last judgment appear in Matthew. The first and most famous is in Matthew 7:21-23. “Many will say to Me on that day” refers to the day of judgment, when entrance into “the kingdom of heaven” is determined, and Jesus Himself orders some to “depart” from Him (quoting from Ps. 6:8). Those whom He orders away are the ones who failed to do the will of the Father. Jesus also refers to the day of judgment with reference to the cities that reject His ministry (Matt. 10:14-15; 11:21-24). His statements here match Luke 12 by indicating that some will be punished more harshly on the basis of their many opportunities to repent.

Jesus tells the Pharisees that in the judgment, people will give account for every word they have spoken, and will be justified or condemned based on those words (Matt. 12:33-37). When He speaks of His return, He quotes from Psalm 62:12, saying He will be the one to “repay every man according to his deeds” (Matt. 16:27). The reference to the Son of Man coming and sitting on His glorious throne while the disciples judge the tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:28) is more likely related to the future Messianic kingdom than to the last judgment itself.

Matthew contains several controversial references to servants in Jesus’ parables being thrown into “outer darkness” where there is “weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Matt. 22:13-14; 24:48-51; 25:30; cf. Luke 13:27-28). Jesus never identifies this place as hell, and some have thought this refers to punishment for believers after their judgment. Similar suspicions arise concerning John 15:6 and Hebrews 10:26-27. But such servants in these parables are invariably described as “evil” and “worthless.” Moreover, Matt. 25:48-51 and its parallel in Luke 12 refer to the outer darkness as the place of hypocrites and unbelievers. The “weeping and gnashing” language is the same used in Matt. 8:11-12; 13:36-43; and 13:49-50, where it is clear that those thrown outside are the ones who appeared to be sons and servants of God, and perhaps thought themselves to be so, but in fact never were. One of the purposes of the judgment, as Matt. 13:36-43 in particular reveals, is to make manifest the distinction between the truly righteous and the hypocrites.

The longest eschatological judgment passage in the Bible is Matthew 25:31-46. Following the Olivet Discourse, Jesus speaks of coming with His angels to sit on “His glorious throne,” using the same language found in 16:27 and 19:28. All the nations are gathered together, and they are separated “as the shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.” Jesus commends the “sheep” who have served Christ by helping His brothers and welcomes them into “eternal life.” He then condemns the “goats” who have neglected His brothers and sends them to “eternal punishment.”

The Early Church
The exaltation of Christ and His future kingdom were a part of apostolic preaching (Acts 2:29-35; 3:21). Peter refers to Jesus as “appointed by God as Judge of the living and the dead” (Acts 10:42). Paul preaches that God “has fixed a day in which He will judge the world in righteousness” through Christ (Acts 17:31). It is in the early days of the church that James speaks of the “crown of life, which the Lord has promised to those who love Him” (Jam. 1:12). This sort of crown was a wreath of branches and leaves given as a prize in athletic competitions. Here, James specifies that the “crown” believers receive is “life,” meaning eternal life. These early church teachings are essentially a continuation of Jesus’ own statements about the judgment.
The Letters of Paul

While none of Paul’s material is strictly apocalyptic, more than half of his letters contain some reference to a future judgment. His first reference is an expansion of Matt. 16:27; Jesus returns with His “mighty angels in flaming fire” to deal out retribution to believers’ enemies, who will pay the penalty of eternal destruction (2 Thes. 1:6-10). This is imagery of the battlefield rather than the courtroom, and fits closely with Old Testament prophecies of a final battle between Yahweh and the nations that oppress Israel.

Romans 2:1-16 has as its focus the impartiality of God and the fact that all are unjust by God’s standards. Paul says the unrepentant are “storing up wrath” for themselves “in the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God.” He quotes Ps. 62:12 as Jesus did, and describes the repayment as eternal life for the righteous and “wrath and indignation” for the selfishly ambitious and disobedient. Even those who do not have access to God’s word will be judged by the law written on their hearts “in the day when, according to my gospel, God will judge the secrets of men through Christ Jesus.”

Paul also speaks of judgment with regard to believers. After clarifying in Romans 8:1-2 that believers face no further condemnation (echoing 1 Thes. 5:9-10), he says that “we will all stand before the judgment seat of God” (Rom. 14:10-12). There all of them will give account to God. In support, Paul quotes Isa. 45:23, which says “every knee will bow” and “every tongue shall give praise to God.” The believers’ judgment comes up again in 1 Corinthians 3:10-15. He likens the deeds of believers to materials which are either flammable, or are purified when refined by fire. The deeds are then tested by fire, and those which have Christ as their foundation remain. Those with deeds left over receive a reward, and those with none are saved without additional reward.

As in Romans 14, Paul warns the Corinthians not to make hasty judgments about motives, for everything will be revealed when the Lord comes and discloses secrets. Then “each man’s praise will come to him from God” (1 Cor. 4:4-5). Paul later repeats his statement about believers being judged according to their deeds, this time referring to “the judgment seat of Christ” (2 Cor. 5:9-10).

Paul’s prison letters contain only brief mention of the judgment, usually to encourage godly living. To the Ephesian slaves he counsels work as for the Lord, on the basis that God, their true Master, will repay everyone “whatever good thing each one does” (Eph.6:5-9). Paul again uses Isa. 45:23, this time for the future public exaltation of Christ; in this passage, every tongue confesses that Jesus Christ is the Lord (Phil. 2:9-11). Also in Philippians (4:3), Paul in passing makes the first New Testament reference to the book of life, whose names include those of Paul’s fellow workers.

Paul’s last letter speaks of Christ as the judge of “the living and the dead” (4:1) and follows James’ lead in speaking of his reward as a crown: the crown of righteousness, which will be given “on that day” to all those who have “loved His appearing” (4:8). From Paul’s statements in Romans and elsewhere, this would be the righteousness of Christ, which is imputed to believers and will allow them to stand before God without fear of punishment.
Later New Testament Revelation

The general epistles demonstrate that Paul and the other apostles were harmonious in their view of the judgment. Hebrews 9:27 asserts that “it is appointed for men to die once and after this comes judgment,” in keeping with the biblical testimony that the future judgment is universal in scope. Peter has much to say about the end times. Pagans “will give account to Him who is ready to judge the living and the dead” (1 Pet. 4:3-5), and the Lord keeps “the unrighteous under punishment for the day of judgment” (2 Pet. 2:9-10). What this reveals is that unbelievers will face punishment before the judgment as well as after (i.e., that they are in torment as soon as they die). In 2 Peter 3:7, the apostle associates the day of judgment with the physical destruction of the universe. Finally, Peter is the third New Testament author to speak of a “crown” reward: “the unfading crown of glory” (1 Pet. 5:1-4). Eternal glory will be given to pastors who faithfully shepherd God’s flock.

The letter of 1 John is a series of tests and distinctions between believers and unbelievers. Anyone with a question as to whom God will accept at the judgment can find answers there. John says in 4:17 that those who believe in the love God has given (i.e., the atoning work of Christ) can “have confidence in the day of judgment.”
The Book of Revelation

The bulk of Revelation has to do with God’s judgment on the nations, but for most of the book, the nations being judged are persecuting believers on earth rather than being gathered before God’s throne. Jesus’ return is not described until chapter 19, and there the battle language recalls Old Testament war passages.

With regard to believers, each of the letters to the seven Asian churches contains a reward given to those who “overcome.” These are the right to eat from the tree of life (2:7), the crown of life (2:11), manna and a stone with a secret name (2:17), the morning star (2:28), white garments and the place of one’s name in the book of life (3:5), becoming a pillar in God’s temple, inscribed with the name of God and His city (3:12), and the right to sit on Jesus’ throne (3:21). Clearly most of these are symbolic, and require understanding of the culture of the time to comprehend. The small white stone, for example, was given by hosts to their guests as an invitation to visit whenever they wish.

The hymns of Revelation contain additional references to the book of life (13:8; 17:8; 21:27) as the determining factor in who will follow the beast and who will resist it. Following the return of Christ and His thousand-year kingdom, the universe is destroyed, and God appears on a “great white throne.” This probably recalls the huge throne of ivory Solomon made in 1 Kgs. 10:18. The dead are judged on the basis of their deeds, as recorded in “books.” The second resurrection then occurs, and the dead whose names are not contained in the book of life are thrown into the lake of fire (20:11-15). One of the last statements of Jesus in Revelation is that He is coming with a reward “to render to every man according to what he has done” (22:12).”
Conclusions

It is abundantly clear from all sections of the Bible that following death there awaits a judgment for each person on the basis of deeds done in this life. Slaves and freemen, Jews and Gentiles, believers and unbelievers will all stand before Jesus Christ, acknowledge His Lordship, and give an account. This judgment will include not only every person, but every act and word, every secret and motive. The stakes are eternal life versus eternal punishment.

Ultimately, those whose names are in the book of life (i.e., who are among God’s people), will be judged righteous on the basis of the righteousness of Christ. There is no punishment for them, because their sins are forgiven. They will receive differing degrees of rewards for deeds they have done for the sake of Christ, but all believers will inherit eternal life and spend eternity with God as a citizen of His kingdom. Those whose names are not in the book of life will not have done His will but have rejected Him. These will receive differing degrees of punishment on the basis of their opportunities to repent, and all of them will be cast into the lake of fire.

There is near consensus among all Christians regarding the reality and terms of this future judgment. There is disagreement on the time of the judgment and which elements are symbolic. This much can be gleaned from the text:

* The ultimate judgment will take place after death.
* There is retributive judgment which will be meted out upon living unbelievers shortly before and upon Christ’s return. This judgment is frequently spoken of in plague and battle imagery.
* Throne imagery is used to describe the judgment which resurrected believers must face before entering their eternal state.
* Throne imagery is used to describe the judgment which resurrected unbelievers must face before entering their eternal state.
* There exists throne imagery in which both believers and unbelievers are present.
* Judgment described with throne imagery is associated with the physical destruction of the present creation.

The various descriptions of the restoration in the Old Testament and Christ’s return in the New Testament suggest that Jesus will indeed return to make war on the nations, though exactly how that war will be fought is open to interpretation. Forensic judgment passages are evidently distinct from this, in that those judged have died and been resurrected, and Revelation 20:6 specifically states that unbelievers will not be resurrected until after the time allotted for the kingdom Christ will establish upon His return.

What is most at issue among evangelical Christians is whether the judgments before which believers and unbelievers will stand are the same event or two different ones. If they are different, the imagery which depicts believers and unbelievers together must be a third judgment, or symbolic and not a reference to an actual event. Some believe there will only be one throne judgment, at which all will stand together, following the end of the world. Others hold to three throne judgments. Those in Christ stand before the “judgment seat of God” (Rom. 14:10-12) or the “judgment seat of Christ” (2 Cor. 5:9-10) in heaven immediately after the rapture. There are no punishments here, only rewards. Christ’s return takes place seven years later, at which time Old Testament believers are resurrected and the “glorious throne” judgment (Matt. 25:31-46) takes place when He first establishes His kingdom. Here believers and unbelievers are separated to determine entrance into God’s kingdom. Finally, after the world is destroyed, the second resurrection occurs, followed by the “great white throne” judgment, which is only for unbelievers.

The evidence for separate judgments is as follows:

* Different words are used for the setting of each judgment (seat of Christ / glorious throne / great white throne).
* Believers must face their judgment before they are glorified, and thus immediately following the rapture.
* The Matthew 25 judgment is associated with the public return of Christ and must happen at that time, not a thousand years later.
* The Matthew 25 judgment is primarily for Old Testament believers, who are not “in Christ” and thus will not be resurrected at the rapture.
* The stakes in Matthew 25 are entrance into “the kingdom of heaven,” which is always the millennial kingdom.
* Since the great white throne judgment follows the millennium, it is distinct from the other two judgments.
* Believers are not mentioned at all in the great white throne passage.
* The great white throne judgment is to determine salvation; believers’ salvation will have already been determined.
* Since believers’ sins are forgotten (Jer. 31:16), they cannot be judged according to them. This is why they will not appear at the great white throne judgment.

The evidence for one judgment is as follows:

* The Bible consistently speaks of only one “day of judgment.”
* Different words do not indicate different events; even the “judgment seat” is called by two names.
* The entire eschaton, from the tribulation to the eternal state, is often conceived of as a whole in biblical prophecy.
* Believers enter heaven upon death and are glorified at the instant of the resurrection, both before any judgment event.
* There is only one “first resurrection,” at which both Old and New Testament believers will be raised, since both are in Christ (1 Cor. 10:1-4; Heb. 11:24-26).
* The “kingdom of heaven” has several uses and can refer to eternity as well as the earthly reign of Christ.
* Unbelievers will also be present in the millennial kingdom, since it ends in rebellion (Rev. 20:8). The rebels cannot be descendants of believers, since they will not reproduce in the resurrection (Matt. 22:30).
* Judgment according to deeds is decidedly universal throughout the Bible and is applied to believers more than once. The absence of believers in one passage does not suggest their exemption.
* The status of unbelievers will also have been determined before the judgment, as is the case for believers.
* The order of Revelation 20:12-14 suggests that some of “the dead” will be judged at the great white throne before the unbelievers’ resurrection. These must be believers.
* In whatever sense believers’ sins are forgotten, Paul states they will be made public on the day of judgment.
* The emphatic universality of the judgment passages strongly implies an event at which everyone, both believers and unbelievers, will be present.

Other Issues

There are a number of common misconceptions which can be laid to rest with a careful look at the texts. One is the concept that each person individually stands before God (or a representative such as Peter) immediately upon death. He asks something such as, “Why should I let you into My heaven?” and the answer determines where one spends eternity. But Scripture consistently depicts the judgment as a public gathering of the nations after the resurrection, and several passages indicate believers go to heaven at death.

Many people also speak of receiving “jewels” in their crowns for certain deeds or for sinners won to Christ. While this is certainly fitting imagery for heavenly rewards, some mean it quite literally and do not understand that the word for “crown” refers to a laurel wreath rather than a metal headpiece. They also miss the fact that the authors state what the crowns symbolize: life, righteousness, and glory. For this reason, it is also an error to say believers will lay these crowns at Jesus’ feet. This is something done by angelic beings in John’s vision–not by human believers (Rev. 4:10)–and is not associated with the judgment at all.

Others, mostly non-Christians, speak of judgment day as a weighing of good against bad. If a person’s good deeds outweigh the bad ones, that person goes to heaven. (Such people nearly always consider their deeds to be mostly good.) Among all the theological problems with this concept, the two greatest are (1) that our greatest acts of “righteousness” are like filthy rags before God (Isa. 64:6) and no one is good except God, and (2) acts of righteousness do not mitigate sin (Rom. 3:20), and it took only one sin to place all men under condemnation in the first place (Rom. 5:18). Unless we were “dressed in His righteousness alone,” and thus “faultless to stand before the throne,” we would have no hope.

Finally, believers will not receive punishments at the judgment, unconfessed sin and traditions of purgatory notwithstanding. Romans 8:1 and Hebrews 10:12, 18 make it clear that Christ has completely paid the penalty for believers’ sins; there is nothing more to be done.